War Occurs Because There Is Nothing to Prevent It Essay

War Occurs Because There Is Nothing to Prevent It - Essay Example As per the pragmatist hypothesis, the universal framework works on balanced governance strategy that is defective to a limited degree given the ethnic and social dissimilarities between the people groups of the world. Samuel Huntington’s â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations† contends that the separation points between civic establishments lead to war. This has demonstrated in the repercussions of the 9/11 assaults against the US. Different observers like Robert Kagan have highlighted the resurgence of Russia and the ongoing clash in the Caucasus among Russia and Georgia for instance of how â€Å"history returns† at whatever point certain countries tumble from pre-greatness and afterward stand up for themselves to recover the lost brilliance. In his ongoing work, â€Å"The Return of History and the End of dreams†, Keegan compellingly makes the point about how the 21st century may appear as though with regards to global relations. The pragmatist viewpoint appear s to be a decent crystal to take a gander at the perplexing elements molding war. This can be seen from the way that in the repercussions of the fall of the Berlin Wall and the Collapse of Communism, the then US president George Bush Sr. put forth a defense for a â€Å"New World Order† and broadcasted that â€Å"we are at the edge of another period that has been envisioned by ages of men however has consistently evaded them†. Be that as it may, the rapture was fleeting as Iraq, under Saddam Hussein assaulted Kuwait and in this way this prompted American intercession and the main Gulf war. Hence, we have history rehashing itself in 2008 when Russia stood up for itself in South Ossetia.

Pressure Groups Essay

Weight gatherings can impact political choices from numerous points of view. Weight bunches speak to a specific issue/issues and attempts to squeeze the legislature to change laws concerning their particular intrigue. This can happen in a few distinct manners however techniques utilized by insider pressure bunches are diverse to the ones utilized by untouchable weight gatherings. Outcast weight bunches keep their autonomy from the administration. Due to this these weight bunches are not limited by a similar implicit rules as insider pressure gatherings and have more opportunity to dissent in manners, which the Government would not endorse of. Direct activity is a strategy frequently utilized by untouchable compel gatherings to pressurize the Government. The sorts of direct activity utilized are regularly illicit and hazardous. For instance the Animal Liberation Group went to a mink ranch and let the minks out and have likewise picketed research centers and tossed stones at the individuals who work there. Pariah pressure bunches that desire to become insiders are bound to comply with the law when they are dissenting so they have to a greater extent an opportunity of setting up joins with the administration and be given the insider status. Anyway insider pressure bunches will in general be subtler and cunning in the manner in which they apply Pressure to the legislature. Insider pressure bunches will in general have an aptitude in their general vicinity of intrigue and can look into their issues successfully. Insider pressure bunches will in general have contacts with Government Officials and Civil Servants who they can use to get data. Government workers will likewise utilize the examinations did by these constrain gatherings to improve Bills. Since insider Pressure Groups invest a ton of energy looking into issue’s that they are worried about and examine them officially then they gain regard from the legislature and are progressively ready to impact leaders. Despite the fact that insider and pariah bunches utilize various strategies to impact the legislature the fundamental route is to attempt to get exposure for their motivation and to get the general population on their side. Sending letters to papers, walking through the boulevards, giving Exhibits, leafleting and holding open gatherings does this. Some weight gatherings will gather marks for a request, which they at that point send to a MP to attempt to convince him to bring the issue up in parliament. Margerat Ewing raised the issue of the dumping of Nuclear waste at Dunraye in parliament to enable a strain to bunch worried about the issue. In the Scottish Parliament there is an uncommon Petition Committee which examines petitions and illuminates the Minister to which every request of concerns. This a viable method of weight as it implies that the Scottish Executive will have the option to discover issues and will have the option to perceive what number of individuals need an adjustment in enactment to take care of this issue. Weight bunches impact political choices by utilizing the media for exposure, utilizing government authorities and government workers and now and again utilizing illicit techniques to attempt to pressurize the Government.

Average ACT Scores What They Mean For You

Normal ACT Scores What They Mean For You SAT/ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The normal ACT score for US understudies is a 21. The center half of understudies score between a 16 and a 24. The accompanying graph separates the across the country normal by area: English Math Perusing Science 20.3 20.9 21.3 20.8 In any case, when you’re pondering school affirmations the across the nation normal isn’t significant: the main thing is the normal score of the understudies you’re being contrasted and. On the off chance that you’re a high accomplishing understudy applying to exceptionally particular schools you’ll need a score a lot higher than the national normal. On the off chance that, then again, you’re applying to certain state schools, a 20 is an absolutely adequate score. Extremely, the National Average Doesn't Matter In case you're stressing over your ACT scores, it's most likely on the grounds that you need to utilize them to apply to school. In any case, the national normal incorporates each understudy who takes the ACT (an excellent aggregate of 59% of understudies who graduatedin 2015), including numerous who don't expect to set off for college butare required to accept the test as a feature of a statewide appraisal program. When you’re applying to school or for grants you aren’t contending with these understudies, you’re just going up against different understudies applying for that school or grant. The key isto have a normal or higher score contrasted with the understudies you’re going up against the national normal is along these lines basically negligible for your motivations. We should discuss a few numbers that may be increasingly useful as far as defining an objective for yourself. Instructions to Compare Yourself to Your Peers In case you're as yet inquisitive about how you contrast with different understudies from a general perspective, you should check outhow your ACTscores contrast with those of different understudies like you, for example those with comparative evaluations and foundations. As a rule, the most effortless approach to comprehend where you fall in this range is to discover the normal ACT score at your secondary school. In case you're a high-achievingstudent taking a gander at serious universities, you mayalso need to consider how you stack up with other respect understudies. Remember, however, that with regards to school applications, these numbers are just hardly more significant than the national normal. Normal ACT Score for Your High School In the event that you need to knowthe normal ACT score at your secondary school, simply google â€Å"[your school] ACT scores.† This approachwill be best on the off chance that you go to a government funded school in a state with commanded ACT testing, however numerous tuition based schools list these scores on their sites. In the event that the SAT is commonly increasingly basic where you live, you can take a stab at searching for the normal SAT score and afterward changing over it to an ACT score. Normal ACT Score for Honor Students Understudies with high GPAs likewise will in general have high ACT scores. For understudies in the top â… of their group, the normal ACT score is 27. For those in the best 1/10, it’s 30. These numbers shouldn’t worry you, in any case, since as we’ll go over underneath, what’s extremely significant is the means by which you contrast with different understudies applying to a similar school as you. The Key Number: the Average ACTScore for Your Ideal College As I clarified over, the estimation of an ACT score lies in whether it can get you into the school you had always wanted, not by they way it thinks about to other understudy's scores. In this manner, you'llneed to look into the normal ACT scores for conceded understudies at the schools you need to apply to, so as to decide your score objective. Most schools list a scope of ACT scores (the 25th-75th percentile) instead of a solitary number. You can gaze this information upward by googling [college name] ACT scores or[college name] ACT scores Prepscholar.Then utilize this worksheet to figure your careful objective score dependent on all the schools you’re inspired by. Remember that there's a considerablerange inwhat sort of scores universities expect: the most specific schools by and large have normal ACT scores somewhere in the range of 32 and 35, to some degree particular schools have normal ACT scores in the mid to high twenties, and less specific schools have normal ACT scores in the high adolescents and low twenties. You don't have to freeze since you don't have a 36. What's Next? On the off chance that you haven't arrived at your score objective right now, givesome of our freeACTprep assets an attempt. Start with the 5 general procedures you should know and afterward separate yourprep by area with our definitive advisers for perusing, English, science, and math (not far off). Or on the other hand maybe you'd admission better with the SAT? Usethese advisers for choose whether you may want to concentrate on the other test, regardless of whether its present manifestation or the upgraded form that shows up March 2016:the ACT versus the present SAT and the ACT versus the new SAT. What ifyou're as of now scoring great on the ACT, however are battling with a low GPA?Try these recommendations for how to function around your low evaluations. Baffled with your ACT scores? Need to improve your ACT score by 4+ focuses? Download our free manual for the best 5 methodologies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score drastically. Have companions who likewise need assistance with test prep? Offer this article! Tweet Alex Heimbach About the Author Alex is an accomplished guide and author. In the course of recent years, she has worked with just about a hundred understudies and expounded on mainstream society for a wide scope of distributions. She graduated with distinction from University of Chicago, accepting a BA in English and Anthropology, and afterward proceeded to procure a MA at NYU in Cultural Reporting and Criticism. In secondary school, she was a National Merit Scholar, took 12 AP tests and scored 99 percentile scores on the SAT and ACT. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on the most proficient method to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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Alva Noe Evaluation and Other Approaches - 2750 Words

Alva Noe: Evaluation and Other Approaches (Essay Sample) Content: IntroductionAlva Noeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s "Action in Perception" offers a proportionately vigilant discussion to the subject of perception from viewpoints of psychology and neuroscience altogether. In chapters one, three and six, the author focuses on static visual perception forms of representation; and how this relates with cognitive capabilities of the perceiver and his or her immediate environment. He outlines that perception involves a number of aspects of human sensory systems save for the eyes and that vision is hardly passive.SummaryIn simple terms, Noe (2004) establishes that perception is a voluntary and practiced bodily activity of human beings and not something that occurs as an instinctive brain or intelligence function. He states, "Perception is something we doà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ not something that happens to us" (Noe, 2004). As for Action in Perception, the author maintains that the instance of perception per se is fully contingent on ability to think and act altogether . As such, people validate their own perceptions in accordance to physical feelings or experiences that they gain from the environment or surroundings with comprehension.Noe further examines different forms of comprehension that people gather from the environment via empirical sensations. This, he believes, occurs both transitorily and gradually; people interact with elements in their environment via forms of lively exploration and inquiry. This further implies the acquisition and exercise of knowledge of matter occupying space in different shapes, forms and color. Intrinsically, bodily activity comes into place as a function of reasoning or perception for that matter.Authorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s ArgumentsFor purposes of realizing an enhanced description of the content of perception, Noeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s thinking points out that the world is not open to consciousness concomitantly, hence the need for steady exploration and inquiry for purposes of gaining familiarity and or comprehension of sensor y impressions. In this context, he explains different forms of comprehension- namely, sensorimotor understanding and conceptual understanding. He further maintains that perpetual experiences in a personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s environment are responsible for content enactment. This he attributes to the existence and practice of bodily knowledge in accordance to prevailing spatial content; it also encompasses use of skill or knowledge for physical exploration like head movements accompanied by vision. In this regard, Noe offers a clear analogy of the elements involved in skillful probing of the environment by a person. His analysis of enactive perception of content involves human anatomy sensory organs including the nervous system, muscles, skin, and limbs and the numerous physical pragmatic conditions involved. One can however argue that Noe fails to consider for a moment, intersubjective social interactions of persons, which forms a major part of perception in general. Even so, he is keen to give a relatively credible account of enactive approach to action in perception in relation to sensory capabilities or rather internal cognitive representations of the environment by motor functions of individuals. In light of this, Noe seems to agree with the philosophy of John Dewey as portrayed in his essay "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" of 1896.Noe also states, "the key to [the enactive theory] is the idea that perception depends on the possession and exercise of a certain kind of practical knowledge" (Noe, 2004. p. 33). He believes that human cognitive capacity is for the most part "shaped by a complicated hierarchy of practical skills" (Noe, 2004. p. 31). Indeed, there exists a seemingly reasonable assurance in the ideology that human perception in action elaborates itself within the margins of vision science in general. All the same, Noeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s ideas of perception bear little regard to standard principles of conventional mainstream vision science, approaches pro pagated by psychologists like Stephen Palmer, wittgenstein and J.J. Gibson.Noe (2004) is also of the idea that the assumption of Cartesian Neuroscience in regards to thought in experience being a neural phenomenon lacks sufficient empirical evidence. This is most likely the reason why he insists on a traditional philosophical argument, which posits that voluntary brain activity alone, is not only adequate but also responsible for perception in action because of sheer consciousness and stimulation by environmental factors. He even terms this as the basis of his argument.In a manner of speaking, Noe provides a justifiable illustration of the relationship between causation of perception and enacting content. Without a doubt, perceptual experiences are for the most part, a result of externalism, owing to the fact that they are a product of the interaction of bodily activity and the environment. It is upon this reasoning that Noe establishes causation or substrate for perceptual experien ce. He writes, "per-haps the only way - or the only biological way - to produce just the flavor sensations one enjoys when one sips wine is by rolling a liquid across one's tongue (Noe, 2004). Therefore, the claim that defining features of perceptual experience are external remains a valid one.Cognitive science, per se, upholds that enacting content relies on information presented to a lively individual via visual perception. This, Noe believes to be nothing short of truth in reality. He sees it as the major conception of action in perception with substantial concern. Nevertheless, one cannot argue against the fact that persons get to gather details of their environment by movements of the bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s sensory organs. These details, as Noe (2204) concurs, result in internal representations used to develop and or process information by the brain. To further elaborate on this argument, Noe goes ahead to challenge thought of the situation wherein the world (as it is) would not be p resent (virtual reality), for instance, in utter darkness, or blindness for that matter, the world would still be represented in thought but with totally different perception and so action. As is always the case, we only need to move our bodiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ sensory organs (eyes, head and body in general) to gather information about the environment and achieve perception in action-n this can be termed as successful correlation of internalism and externalism. As such, Noe (2004) is arguably veracious in indicating that perception, in its original sense, is not a meditated act of internal representation to fill the gap between brain activity and the real-life environment. However, and reasonably, it is the result of interaction between the two (Noe, 2004).Noeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s arguments indicated above form his Sensorimotor Contingency Theory of perceptual consciousness. This ideology is nothing short of rational since gaining sensorimotor knowledge in the first place requires both neural acti vity and lively bodily movements as described earlier.Evaluation and Other ApproachesIn reviewing Noeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s arguments however, Block (2005) is keen to argue that the former holds an exaggerated and radical externalist view in place of internalism. Block (2005), categorically argues for a heightened role of internalism, he maintains, "Sensorimotor know-how and perceptual experience are causally related, but that is no reason to think that they are constitutively related. He continues to point out that "the issue of the constitutive supervenience base for experience is the issue of what isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬and is notà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬a metaphysically necessary part of a metaphysically sufficient condition of perceptual experience." In particular, Block believes that Noe is wrong to combine into one the elements of causation and constitution, and to claim validity of constitutive relations using casual relations. This paper however finds the claims of Block (2005) to be somewhat misleading on the basis that he lacks sufficient evidence to support his claims. More so, Noe (2004) does not maintain or claim that perception in action must occur in the consequence of bodily activity or movement as a necessity. This is in consideration of the fact that, for instance a person with spinal cord damage, unable to move, can still achieve action in perception (exploration), so long as his or her sensorimotor or neuropsychological functions are intact. Therefore, claiming that sensory and motor functions rely on bodily movements, as block (2005) seemingly claims is nothing short of counterfactual.In a factual sense, Noe (2004) explains that perception in action is reliant on constitutive exercise of sensorimotor knowledge. Nonetheless, he oughtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s to consider the challenges and counterarguments against his externalism claims, for even his own arguments borrow a lot and or favor internalism since they involve abstract reasoning that indicate it is possible for one to explore his or her environment within the confines of brain activity and without apparent bodily movements.A keen look however reveals a gap in Noeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s explanations, as to whether neural stimulation varies with different levels of bodily movements, and whether any metaphysical factors play a part in this concept; considering the claim that brain activity is enough to realize action in perception. In light of this, one might be compelled to think that Noe (2004) misplaces his arguments when he states that perception (in all ways possible) is "touch-like" owing to body skills- enactment (externalism).It is important to acknowledge that perceptual experience is fundamentally difficult to understand if not equivocal. Noe (2004) establishes the difference between how objects in the environment actually are and "how they appear to beà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . This ambiguity, which the author explains, is true in every aspect, forming long standing psychological "puzzlesà ¢...

Women Of The Roman Empire - 1022 Words

In the Roman Empire, and in most ancient societies, the role and status of woman has been obscured by the bias of ancient male writers. Just as women are viewed in ancient Greece, and Imperial China, women in the Roman Empire were viewed as inferior to men. In the Roman Empire it was believed that women should be under the control of a guardian, which controls the aspects of her life. This guardian could be her father, husband, or a male relative (Nystrom). Marriage in the Roman Empire was not romantic, it was often set up by an agreement between two families. Men normally married around their mid-twenties and women married in their teens. As these ages were approaching, the parents would try to find a suitable partner that could improve the family’s social class and wealth. From there, the lives of women varied based on their position in society. Those from a higher class had their daily labor done by slaves, while those without a slave lead a life of leisure. Women without a slave were in charge of raising children and keeping up the house. Women held many important roles when it came to family, and the household in spite of their social status placed below that of men (Cartwright). The main duty of a women in the Roman Empire was to look after the home, and nurture a family, specifically by bearing a child. The Roman family was typically male dominated, which would be headed but the most senior male figure. It is shown that there is a close dependence of women on theirShow MoreRelatedWomen During The Roman Empire921 Words   |  4 Pagesthere has also been much diversity and contradictory evidence for women in the Roman Empire. On one hand, the cultural assumption was that women were inferior to men and they should obey their husbands or fathers. While, on the other hand, there is scattered evidence that women were engaged in commerce, heading of the household, and influencing politics. An approach to this second assumption was suggested that their participation by women in all these affairs was not â€Å"real.† It may have appeared thatRead MoreThe Role Of Women During The Roman Empire1299 Words   |  6 PagesWhen the Roman armies began their ultimat ely successful invasion of Britain the contrasts between the invading culture and the invaded culture became easily apparent. Due to the invasion, the two cultures were forced into one space to interact and interchange with each other in many ways. In some ways they were found to be similar, and in others the cultures varied widely. Throughout the course of this paper I will compare and contrast the role of women in the indigenous Celtic society and that ofRead MoreThe Role Of Women During The Han Dynasty And The Roman Empire1139 Words   |  5 PagesThe role of women in both the the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire women was ambiguous. The Han Dynasty ruled from 206 BCE–220 CE. Much later came the Roman Empire, which lasted from 27 CE-476 CE. In these civilizations, elite women were treated very differently than men because of their gender. Women had limited political freedom, their marriages were not loving partnerships, and women’s social expectations oppressed th em. Although the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire were separated by many milesRead MoreComparing and Contrasting the Role of Women during the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages1564 Words   |  7 PagesPlan of Investigation This investigation strives to compare and contrast of the role of women during the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. The inquiry is significant because in order to understand the culture and ethics of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages it is crucial to understand the importance of women. The issues that will be addressed include: the role of women in the Roman Empire, the role of women in the Middle Ages, and the similarities as well as the differences of the two major timeRead MoreThe Roman Empire And Republic940 Words   |  4 Pages Since the Roman Empire and Republic and the Christian Roman Empire were set in prolific time periods, they were powerful and cultured in their own standing. Society between these two, conclusively was supported by each community. Respectably, the following idea of society is comprised of religion, women, government, and rule. As religion is at the center of every community, the Christian Roman Empire and Roman Republic and Empire held fast to their beliefs. To be part of the Christian religionRead MoreEdward Gibbon s Declaration Of The Reign1444 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"most happy and prosperous† time in the history of the human race bases its claims on what could be viewed as â€Å"superficial† aspects of the empire. When studying the Roman Empire, it’s difficult to not admire the stunning works, such as the House of Fawn in Herculaneum or Hadrian’s Villa. The wealth needed to create such places indicates the prosperity within the empire during this time. Gibbons claimed understanding on happiness and prosperity seem to have less to do with the personal lives of the humanRead MoreDifferences Between Roman Republic And Roman Empire865 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferences between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. With the many differences there are also some similarities between the two governing systems. A obvious difference is the time period the Roman Republic and Roman Empire lasted. A obvious similarity is they both occurred in Rome. Rome felt under constant threat, at the beginning of the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic was initially ruled by the rich and powerful. This ruling began â€Å"After the overthrow of the monarchy, Roman nobles, eager toRead MoreRoman Achievements and Contributions1571 Words   |  7 PagesRoman Achievements Jigsaw Background: The period of great cultural achievements for the Roman Empire is referred to as the Pax Romana, or â€Å"Peace of Rome.† Beginning after the Republican Wars in 27 B.C., and lasting to about 180 A.D., this era was marked by general tranquility and unity across the empire. By this time, Rome had overtaken most of the Mediterranean world and had spread its culture. Family Religion The family was the basic unit of Roman society. Under Roman law, the male headRead MoreWomen of Ancient Rome China805 Words   |  4 PagesThe empires of Rome and China were very great ones, they both had many similarities and differences in the way they ran their empires. One major difference was the way they treated their women. Both Chinese and Roman women were unequal in social status than the men of the empires were, but they were definitely treated different in both empires. Women of China were treated quite harshly and were expected to take orders at all times by their husbands, and were to serve them always. This started toRead MoreSimilarities Between Rome And Han China990 Words   |  4 PagesEra, the Roman Empire and Han Dynasty emerged as two formidable forces in a world of conquest and empire-building. While Rome and Han China had similar methods of imperial consolidation concerning their patriarchal societies and upper-classes, the two differed greatly in their bure aucracies, policies regarding conquered peoples, and labor systems. Patriarchy was a prominent aspect of the societies of both empires. The family unit in Rome was ruled by paterfamilias, the male head, and women were thought

William Baxter’s Anthropocentric Justification Regarding...

XXXXX XXXXXXXX Alex Hallam Philosophy 252: Contemporary Moral Problems 3 December 2012 William Baxter’s Anthropocentric Justification Regarding Regulation of Pollution Introduction: William Baxter addresses the issue of pollution, using a human-oriented method by which all value assigned to flora and fauna is dependent on each entity’s benefits to humans. In this essay I will briefly explain Baxter’s anthropocentric approach, attempt to show the flaws in Baxter’s arguments, examine his possible recourse after revisiting these points, and then conclude by restating my stance regarding the importance of flora and fauna and the immorality of environmental pollution. Pollution is immoral not only because we have a duty to preserve the†¦show more content†¦The idea that an animal or plant which has little or no value has fulfilled its purpose, or rather failed in its purpose for humans, should become extinct is appalling. It is unjustified for the simple fact that the future ramifications for upsetting that necessary balance are unpredictable in our continual evolutionary adaptation. We do not as evolved beings yet have the ability to see into the future, nor to anticipate ramifications that come with the extinction of any one species. Therefore even if fauna and flora exist only for the benefit of humans, an unknown benefit should be reason enough to preserve a particular habitat. If waste is bad and the purpose of an animal or plant is yet to be discovered, how can anyone assign its value or lack-there-of? The rare botanical that may just be the cure to cancer may have perished in the forest felled for that new parking lot in some new district just outside of town. In eliminating the value of a plant or animal and perhaps failing to preserve its existence, we may unintentionally forsake human existence. Baxter seems to put a lot of faith in the intelligence and intentions of men in regard to the variable nature of one man’s preferences over another. Baxter admits that humans are selfish and egotistical by nature. If man’s desire in magnitude is by nature so

Hiv/Aids Stigma free essay sample

Stigma and discrimination associated with HIV and AIDS are the greatest barriers to preventing further infections, providing adequate care, support and treatment and alleviating impact. HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination are universal, occurring in every country and region of the world. They are triggered by many forces, including lack of understanding of the disease, myths about how HIV is transmitted, prejudice, lack of treatment, irresponsible media reporting on the epidemic, the fact that AIDS is incurable, social fears about sexuality, fears relating to illness and death, and fears about illicit drugs and injecting drug use. In many parts of South Asia, stigma and discrimination is routinely faced by people living with HIV/AIDS and their families. Many others are discriminated because of their sexual orientation and choice of professional occupation. This paper examines the role stigma and discrimination play in the spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the context of South Asia. We will write a custom essay sample on Hiv/Aids Stigma or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The most affected are people living with HIV/AIDS, especially women and young girls. Also greatly affected are women and girls in households with HIV, irrespective of their personal HIV status, despite them being the principal caregivers and sustaining the family. HIV/AIDS further reinforces stereotypes and fuels the already existing gender-based discrimination against girls and women in the South Asian region. Young people are often denied information on HIV/AIDS and have limited access to prevention and care services, even though half of new infections in the region occur among them. Orphans whose parents have died of AIDS often drop out of school due to stigma and discrimination faced by them at school. Many of them end up in streets and often are sexually exploited. In addition they face violence, and are vulnerable to trafficking, substance abuse and child labour. The Declaration of Commitment, adopted by the UN General Assembly Special Session on HIV/AIDS in June 2001, in which all South Asian countries participated, highlights global consensus on the importance of tackling the stigma and discrimination triggered by HIV/AIDS. All over the world, the shame and stigma associated with the epidemic have silenced open discussion, both of its causes and of appropriate responses. This has caused those infected with HIV and affected by the disease to feel guilty and ashamed, unable to express their views, and fearful that they will not be taken seriously. And they have led politicians and policy-makers in numerous countries to deny that there is a problem, and that urgent action needs to be taken. The stigma and discrimination associated with HIV/AIDS have many other effects. In particular, they have powerful psychological consequences for how people with HIV/AIDS come to see themselves, leading, in some cases, to depression, lack of self-worth and despair. Some also contemplate and commit suicide. They also undermine prevention by making people afraid to find out whether or not they are infected, for fear of the reactions of others. They cause those at risk of infection and some of those affected to continue practising unsafe sex in the belief that behaving differently would raise suspicion about their HIV-positive status. They also cause people with HIV/AIDS erroneously to be seen as some kind of ‘problem’, rather than part of the solution to containing and managing the epidemic. The impact of HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination does not end here. It also affects the capacity of societies to respond constructively to the devastation caused by the epidemic. HIV/AIDS-related stigma does not arise out of the blue, nor is it something dreamed up in the minds of wicked individuals. Instead, like responses to diseases such as leprosy, cholera and polio in the past, it plays to deep-rooted social fears and anxieties. Understanding more about these issues, and the social norms they reinforce, is essential to adequately responding to HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination. Otherwise, we run the risk of developing programmes and interventions that are not comprehensive, thus achieving little impact.

Sedimentary Rocks Essays (557 words) - Geology, Petrology

Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary Rock On Quartz and sedimentary rocks Silicon and oxygen, the two most common chemical elements in the Earth's crust, combine as silicon dioxide to form the mineral quartz. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, are Rocks that are formed by the compaction of sediments or by the crystallization of the dissolved minerals. Quartz is the most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust. Quartz has been found in meteorites and in some rocks collected on the moon. Quartz has the chemical formula SiO2. There are many varieties of quartz, which occurs in nearly all types of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. It is an essential mineral in granites, granodiorites and rhyolites. Metamorphism of quartz-bearing igneous and sedimentary rocks typically increases the amount of quartz and its grain size. Quartz is very resistant to weathering and, therefore, concentrates as sandstones and other detrital rocks. Most sands are weathered fragments of quartz. Sandstone and quartzite are the same materials that are re-lithified (compressed into rock). Quartz has many commercial applications. In science and industry, quartz sand is used for manufacturing sandpaper and other abrasives, polishing powders and soaps. It is used to make building materials, heat-resistant materials known as refractories and for the bearings of precision instruments. Quartz sand is also used in the manufacture of porcelain, glass and metal casting molds. Precision-cut plates of quartz are used for frequency control in radios, TVs, clocks and watches. Compositionally, quartz is usually quite pure, with only traces of other elements like aluminum, sodium, potassium and lithium. Quartz is found as large crystals that are often beautifully colored by impurities. The many varieties of quartz are due to formation of different geometric arrangements of its tetrahedral crystals. This accounts for different crystal structures, and, therefore, different physical properties. To form Quartz sandstone, rock particles & remains of living things are deposited in the sea by rivers and waves. These sediments accumulate layer by layer, over thousands or millions of years, forming thick deposits on land or on the sea floor. The weight of the overlying sediments compact those below. Over time, they form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks usually occur in shallow parts of the sea or in lakes in desert areas where evaporation is higher than precipitation. As evaporation takes place, water is lost and the dissolved minerals form crystals. As evaporation continues, more crystals form and accumulate on the sea or lake floor, becoming sedimentary rocks, i.e. coal. They have a layered appearance because the materials that form them are deposited in layers. Plant and animal fossils can be found in many sedimentary rocks. Color: Very variable; frequently red, brown, greenish, yellow, gray, white. Texture: Medium-grained. Usually well sorted, that is grains all about the same size; grains sub angular to rounded (sandstone). Structure: Bedding usually apparent; current bedding and ripple marks common; graded bedding may occur. Concretions and fossils may be found. Mineralogy: Quartz is the main component but is often accompanied by feldspar, mica or other minerals. The grains may be cemented by silica, calcite or iron oxides. Field relations: Sandstones are associated with most other sedimentary rocks. Most sands accumulated either in water, usually the sea, or as wind-blown deposits in arid continental areas. Desert sandstones tend to be red, and the individual sand grains are often almost spherical and polished. Bibliography www.geology.com Science Essays

Rheumatoid Arthritis questin answers Essay Example

Rheumatoid Arthritis questin answers Essay Example Rheumatoid Arthritis questin answers Essay Rheumatoid Arthritis questin answers Essay 10. Who is most commonly affected my rheumatoid arthritis? Rheumatoid arthritis, being the most common form of autoimmune arthritis, affects over 1. 3 million Americans. Of these 1. 3 million people, 975,000 are women, or 75%. 1-3% of women will develop rheumatoid arthritis over their lifetime. Though it is most common to develop rheumatoid arthritis from ages 40-60, it may develop at any age. Rheumatoid arthritis more commonly effects Native Americans than any other race in America. You are also more susceptible to rheumatoid arthritis if you are a heavy smoker or if you are related to someone who has rheumatoid arthritis. Another factor that can contribute to the development of rheumatoid arthritis is obesity 2. Rheumatoid Arthritis I American College of Rheumatology I ACR. Rheumatoid Arthritis I American College of Rheumatology I ACR. N. p. , n. d. Web. 24 Sept. 2013.. (25) 1 1 . What does rheumatoid arthritis do to your body? Rheumatoid arthritis affects each persons body differently. Some people have long periods of remission where they experience no symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis whatsoever. When symptoms occur, the victims Joints become inflamed. This occurs for unknown reasons, as there is no definite cause of rheumatoid arthritis. When the Joints get inflamed, it wears down the cartilage, and as the cartilage breaks down, the space between the bones narrow, and the bones can rub against each other. 4. Rheumatoid Arthritis RA Center: Symptoms, Pain Relief, Causes, -rests, and Medications. WebMD. WebMD, n. d. web. 23 sept. 2013.. (20) 7. What is rheumatoid arthritis? Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease in which your bodys immune system attacks your bodys Joints by accident. This causes inflammation and can damage both Joints and organs. The causes of rheumatoid arthritis are mostly nknown, but it is genetic and appears more commonly in the obese and smokers. It often occurs in people ages forty to sixty. 1 . Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Treatment Programs for Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Treatment Programs for Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain. The Arthritis Foundation, n. d. Web. 23 Sept. 2013.. (25) 12. What is the difference between rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis? Osteoarthritis affects over 27 million Americans. Osteoarthritis is the breakdown of cartilage. As cartilage deteriorates, bones begin to rub against one another. This makes it difficult for you to use that Joint. Osteoarthritis also damages ligaments and muscles. Osteoarthritis can cause a need for Joint replacements. The two types of Osteoarthritis are primary and secondary. Primary osteoarthritis is associated with aging. The older you are, the more likely you are to have some form of primary osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is a disease, and not part of the normal aging process. Secondary osteoarthritis develops early in life, typically 10 or more years after a specific cause, such as an injury or obesity. Osteoarthritis occurs most often in knees, hips and hands. sability, and limited range of motion is an outcome of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis can affect any Joint in the body. Rheumatoid arthritis is symmetrical, meaning if a Joint on one side of the body is affected, the corresponding joint on the other side of the body is also involved. The tissue that surrounds the joint called the synovium and is what becomes inflamed. 1 . Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Treatment Programs for Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Treatment Programs for Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain. The Arthritis Foundation, n. d. web. 23 sept. 2013.. (25) (25)

Understanding Research techniques in nursing Essay

Understanding Research techniques in nursing - Essay Example In addition to that, the nominal level of measurement entails the grouping of cases into categories. On the same note, in this level of measurement, the measure of dispersion draws its basis on the frequency of the distribution which is the particular frequency of cases in each category (Fisher& Marshall, 2009). On the contrary, the other level of measurement in descriptive statistics is the ordinal level. Apparently, this level of measurement entails grouping of cases into several groups like the previous case. However, here unlike the first case, the categories have numerical hierarchies where data in this level of measurement are classified in a hierarchical manner; in other words, starting from the lowest to the highest point for instance marks (Fethney, 2010). Notably, the measures of the dispersion are similar to the nominal level of measurement but they only vary on the arrangement of the data in the groups. Evidently, the role of descriptive statistics is inevitable in the field of nursing; self-efficacy, which is the ability of a nurse to translate research into meaningful evidence in the field of healthcare (Britt, 2009). On that note, through the study of descriptive statistics, a nurse can be able to think critically and reasonably and thus better job performance (Fisher& Marshall, 2009). It is worth noting that, this particular area of study aids in the building of the thinking capacity of an individual and thus the self-efficacy. Apparently, descriptive statistics can be said to at times very persuasive since it is not a very difficult discipline to venture in as compared to other fields for instance science which may require very complex scientific experiments in order to yield a particular result (Fethney, 2010). Although descriptive statistics plays a huge clinical significance, so does the confidence intervals. On the same

Nursing Ethics and Leadership Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nursing Ethics and Leadership Assignment - Essay Example They also carry embody the vision, mission and values of the unit and share with their staff. In line with the budget, we are also charged with managing human resource, ensuring patient and staff satisfaction, maintaining a safe environment for staff, patients and visitors, ensuring standards and quality of care are also maintained. Nurse Managers are also responsible for hiring, training and developing employees. That must however be done through a very economical way. It is common knowledge that all facilities are faced with the problem of scarce resources which must meet all the patients need. Nurses are supposed to be empathetic and work according to the Science of Safety principles of safety design. Therefore, as a nurse manager, it is my responsibility to ensure that every patient’s individual needs are met in an empathetic but professional way. For example, a patient may require a special room. This will be done as per the institution values and protocols. Another protocol is involving the patient and family centered care. As such, as a nurse manager, I am tasked with ensuring that their customers get thee best care possible. By having a supportive and very caring environment where the patients are allowed interactions with their patients, this can be a reality (Studer, 2003). They are also tasked with ensuring quality food, translation or sign language services for their customers. Therefore, our operational costs must be all inclusive. It is important to note that as a nurse manager, I am supposed to subscribe to the Joint Commission for Medicare & Medicaid Services. The local government too has a stake in the quality of care delivered by the facilities to the general. It is therefore by default that a nurse manager draw a budget that is compliant with all these protocols lay down. The nursing codes in western countries specify that a nurse’s primary responsibility is to the patient and not the doctors or employees. One of

Sources of Errors as a Student, Employee, Business Owner Essay Example for Free

Sources of Errors as a Student, Employee, Business Owner Essay Error Proofing/Poka-Yokes: The most useful mean for the lean incessant improvement is that of poka-yokes. The idea actually is to develop countermeasures that give protection against errors and mistakes that occur in a process. If we follow these countermeasures, we would be considered secure from many errors which can be disastrous for us. The idea to make every aspect of life error proof permeates our education sector, our attitude as employees, and as business owners. 1. Student Errors:Â  * The common error made by the students is to choice their profession, which may not be according to their capabilities and talent. Therefore, it is necessary to choose the profession according to the talent and abilities. * There are students, irregular in their studies because they do not manage a proper schedule for studies. To avoid this, they need to plan for their study goals properly. 2. Employees Errors: * The relationship of an employee with his boss and colleagues matters a lot in understanding his nature of working. He must have the ability to follow the management decisions and direct his subordinates properly. * Violation of rules from the employee’s side. Every organization has its rules and every employees needs to follow these rules in order to work for the benefit of the organization. 3. Business Owner Errors: * Failure of any business is that when business owners don’t set their goals to attain. So in order to avoid the failure there must be strategy and rules. * Business owner may not have strength to get the required quality of work from workers. He must have grip on every aspect of his business. 4. Personal Life Errors: * Some people do not have clarity in their life. It is one of the major error or mistake of life. One must set goals to enjoy a successful life. * Some people are trying to find the shortcuts for enjoying a successful life which may prove fatal for them. Therefore, go for hard work rather to find shortcut paths.

Racial Prejudice in Harper Lee´s To Kill a Mockingbird Essay -- discri

Life is like a thrill ride; one never knows what will be in store for them. Many characters in the story To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee feel the same way about life, having experienced many surprising and unexpected turns of events. This story is about a sleepy southern town filled with prejudice, and a lawyer’s quest, along with his children Scout and Jem, to take steps in ridding the town of its prejudiced attitude. Despite being a white man, a lawyer named Atticus, defends an innocent black man accused of raping a white woman. However, everything does not go as was hoped, and the mindset of the society overpowered Atticus’s fair-minded argument. From this emerges a theme regarding the bigotry and bias overwhelming Maycomb: A prejudiced society results in blindness and ignorance, which can be thwarted through courageous and compassionate actions. The discriminatory mindset of Maycomb’s society shows how prejudice can result in blindness. For example, in Scout’s class, Miss Gates talks about persecution of innocent people in a society after a student brings up the topic of Hitler and the massacre going on in Germany. â€Å"Over here we don’t believe in persecuting anybody. Persecution comes from people who are prejudiced.† (329) Miss Gates is extremely biased towards black people in her own society, and she doesn’t recognize the atrocities happening all around her, similar to the ones happening in Germany. This quote employs irony to show that because of these dominant external and internal influences, Miss Gates is blind to the injustice taking place. She is overly discriminatory towards black people, and feels that they should be treated as lower than white people. This shows how strongly biased mindsets, similar to th... ...history by nearly every race and group in the world; even those who seem the most peaceful and sophisticated commit this atrocity. For example, in the American colonial times, white men from Europe settling in the Americas discriminated against the Native Americans. They decided that they were superior to the Native Americans, and that they had total right to rampage their native lands and claim it as their own. This has been happening ever since the beginning of time and it will continue until the end of civilization, but through courage and compassion, the destructive course of prejudice can be controlled. Work Cited Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. New York: Warner Books, 1982.

Animal Cruelty Analysis

Animal Cruelty Shawn Brinkley Devry University Animal Cruelty Animal cruelty is something we hear about every day on the television from all the different shows. We think we understand the whole concept in which someone can be like that to an animal. The type of person that treats a animal like an object instead of a living breathing thing on this earth is someone that has certain issues that we all can not truly explain. Animal cruelty; what is animal cruelty? Is it cruelty to animals at any point, or is it just for self-glorification? There are many forms of animal cruelty.Most see animal cruelty as a intentional hatred or violence towards animals in which the animals suffer for no known reason other than possible self-satisfaction or glorification of the individual. While some people only think of animal cruelty in the confines of domestic animals e. g. dogs, cats, and other household pets, it extends far beyond that. Cruelty to animals, also known as animal abuse or animal neglec t consists of inflictions of suffering or harm upon animals of the non-human type. Animal abuse can be narrowed down to specific gain, such as killing animals for food or for their fur.The term animal cruelty often arises when opinions differ in respect to the method of slaughter of the animal. Certain cruelty to animals encompasses inflicting harm for personal amusement or to fulfill zoo sadistic impulses, such as inflicting physical harm that can leave the animal disfigured. In looking into animal abuse or animal neglect you may find two different ways to approach the issue. Looking into this further, animal welfare has a position that there is nothing inherently wrong with using animals for human purposes, such as food, clothing, entertainment, and research.Although this does mean these things have to be done in a humane way to minimize unnecessary pain and suffering to the animals themselves. Animal theorist have also criticized that these reason can be argued by the words such as â€Å"unnecessary† and â€Å"Humane† being that they are widely differing interpretations. One argument is to insure protection for animals by making them not to be considered as property and never used as commodities as well. The legal side of this is that the law is designed to prevent the needless cruelty to animals, like killing the animals for fun instead of utilizing the animal for food.Specific countries may frown upon certain animals being used as a source of food having instated in the laws that the cruelty of this is something that will be looked over and not enforced. As a country does not enforce their own laws on the cruelty of the animals this leaves the wide variety of cruelty being looked at closely. Many countries jurisdictions vary around the world having enacted statutes for which forbidden cruelty to some animals may vary and in some cases by the use or practices. There are many reasons individuals abuse animals, cruelty to animals covers a wide range of actions or the lack of action.As we learn about the animal abuse in the world we see certain patterns of behavior employed by most abusers. When we look into animal cruelty it is often broken down into two main categories: active and passive cruelty, this is also referred to as commission and omission. Passive cruelty is in which the cruelty is a lack of action rather than the action itself. Such examples are when a person does not feed the animal (starvation, dehydration and parasite infestations). Other forms are allowing a collar to grow in the skin of the animal because of over tightening and heavy restraints.Inadequate shelter is another where in by the animal isn't given shelter in extreme weather conditions. Active cruelty is where malicious intent is the driving force behind causing harm to animals. Examples of this are when the animal is hurt in any way for no reason such as, beating a dog so hard that they can't walk for barking, shooting animals for fun instead o f game or sport, and throwing a cat off a bridge to see if they can always land on their feet. These examples are active cruelty for the reason of plain enjoyment of the person conducting them.Long before animals became part of the corporate industrial process, the ethics of the animals came first with the husbandry which is the care of the animals. This was the whole interest of the farmers they believed this was a major part in the raising of the animals. Animals were raised on diverse farms that produced crops and several species of animals having access to open pasture and barnyard when weather permits. Husbandry was considered the responsibility of the producers; now that this has all changed the conditions have become considerably worse. â€Å"According to one poll conducted by Oklahoma StateUniversity and the American Farm Bureau Federation found that 75% of the public would like to see government mandates for basic animal welfare measures. † (http://www. closeanimalfa ctories. org/the-issues/animal-cruelty/) Chickens are one of the top leading animals that are miss-treated. Hens sometimes live in a cage that is now bigger than a sheet of paper, causing them to grow into the wires of the cage and slowly dying from dehydration. These kinds of farms breed the birds for only one purpose. Other farms consist of thousands of hens breed just for laying eggs and nothing more. In the United States, an estimated 95% of egg-laying hens are intensively confined in battery cages. †(United Egg Producers. (2008 Edition published 2003). Inside these cages they keep 5 to 6 birds in, but sometime they go too far and keep up to 10 birds. These cages are simply larger in size, but are made from the same material as the cages the size of a sheet of paper. The number of birds that are used like this will astound most Americans. â€Å"As of December 2008, about 300 million birds are confined in battery, almost one for every U. S. citizens. † (USDA National Agriculture Statistics Service. (2008).Pigs are another animal that is covered in the animal cruelty world very widely. The pig farms out there have many pigs that are breed just to breed or only live for a few months before they are slaughtered. Pigs have been used for testing on the side for their skin, because they have the closes skin type to humans this brings on the many test. Pig farms have become larger because of the slow push out of the smaller farms. â€Å"Since the factory systems took hold in the late 1960s, more and more pigs have been produced by increasingly larger operations where small pig farms start to disappear. † (National Hog Farmer, 15 Feb. 002) Pigs are being used like they are machines instead of animals. Certain farms believe that they are just there for one purpose. Some farmers have stated this â€Å"Forget the pig is an animal. Treat him just like a machine in a factory. Schedule treatments like you would lubrication. Breeding season like the f irst step in a assembly line. And marketing like the delivery of finished goods. † (Hog Farm Management Sept 1976). Throughout the nation there millions of pigs being used in these farms and live these kinds of live. Pigs in farms today are pumped with antibiotics because of the many different types of disease that are showing up. In the U. S. , antibiotics are added to 90% of starter feeds, 75% of grower feeds and more than half of finishing feeds for pigs† (Keep Antibiotics Working – Dec. 2003). The reason behind this because of the pigs being packed in cages that barely fit them. â€Å"Two-thirds of all pigs produced in the United States, or around fifty-three million animals a year, spend their lives in a total confinement pig farm. † (Hog Farm Management Sept 1976). Animals being treat as a product is becoming more and more profound. These animals being treated as factories or just machines is something we as a society address on the behalf of the anim als themselves.Animals have been around for millions of years and yes we as humans do depend on them for survival, but we need to understand that many animals are being harmed for this. Animals are used for something every day of our lives from being something we eat, something that we cherish, something we make money from. Animals have made a difference in our live even if we don’t know it. The cruelty to animals is becoming an epidemic across the United States from the smaller animals of bird, dog, cats, and exotic animals.The larger animals are becoming the main source of the cruelty from the chickens, up to the elephants in the circuses. Throughout the nation we have organizations that are willing to stand up for the animals and fight for them as well. The Humane society, PETA, and the animal activist out there are willing to step up to the defense of the animals themselves. PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) is an organization that believes that animals h ave rights just as humans. These rights fight for the animals to not be treated in humane in any way that a human would not be treated as well.In conclusion, animal cruelty is a problem not only in our country but throughout the world. Simple reasons may have cause the cruelty and maybe they are caused by malicious intent of a person. Animal cruelty is something that can be addressed and stop throughout the world if we as people are will to step in. The steps needed to stop animal cruelty are slowly taking effect, from the interaction of law into the farms, to the government shutting down the larger production companies. Reference: The Center to Exposed & Close Animal Factories 2010 http://www. closeanimalfactories. rg/the-issues/animal-cruelty/ United Egg Producers. (2008 Edition published 2003). United Egg Producers Animal Husbandry Guidelines For U. S. Egg Laying Flocks. Retrieved November 15, 2008. Page 1, paragraph 6. USDA National Agriculture Statistics Service. (2008). Chicke ns and Eggs. Retrieved December 16, 2008. page 1. Joe Vansickle, â€Å"Quality Assurance Program Launched,† National Hog Farmer, 15 Feb. 2002 http://www. animalsuffering. com/resources/facts/factory-farming. php J. Byrnes – Raising Pigs by the Calendar at Maplewood Farm – Hog Farm Management Sept 1976

How Was Archaeopteryx Discovered

Fittingly for a creature that most people consider to be the first bird, the story of Archaeopteryx begins with a single, fossilized feather. This artifact was discovered in 1861 by the paleontologist Christian Erick Hermann von Meyer in Solnhofen (a town in the south German region of Bavaria). For centuries, Germans have been quarrying Solnhofens extensive limestone deposits, which were laid down about 150 million years ago during the late Jurassic period. Ironically, though, this first, wispy hint of the existence of Archaeopteryx has since been downgraded by paleontologists. Von Meyers discovery was quickly followed by the unearthing of various, more-complete Archaeopteryx fossils, and it was only in retrospect that his feather was assigned to the Archaeoteryx genus (which was designated in 1863 by the worlds most renowned naturalist at the time, Richard Owen). It turns out that this feather may not have come from Archaeopteryx at all but from a closely related genus of dino-bird! Confused yet? Well, it gets much worse: it turns out that a specimen of Archaeopteryx had actually been discovered as early as 1855, but it was so fragmentary and incomplete that, in 1877, no less an authority than von Meyer classified it as belonging to Pterodactylus (one of the first pterosaurs, or flying reptiles, ever to be identified). This mistake was rectified in 1970 by the American paleontologist John Ostrom, who is famous for his theory that birds evolved from feathered dinosaurs like Deinonychus. The Golden Age of Archaeopteryx: London and Berlin Specimens To backtrack a bit: Shortly after von Meyer discovered his feather, in 1861, a near-complete Archaeopteryx specimen was unearthed in another part of the Solnhofen formation. We dont know who the lucky fossil-hunter was, but we do know that he gave his find to a local doctor in lieu of payment and that this doctor then sold the specimen to the Natural History Museum in London for 700 pounds (a massive amount of money in the mid-19th century). The second (or third, depending on how youre counting) Archaeopteryx specimen suffered a similar fate. This was discovered in the mid-1870s by a German farmer named Jakob Niemeyer, who quickly sold it to an innkeeper so he could buy a cow. (One imagines that Niemeyers descendants, if any are alive today, deeply regret this decision). This fossil traded hands a few more times and was eventually bought by a German museum for 20,000 goldmarks, an order of magnitude more than the London specimen had fetched a couple of decades before. What did contemporaries think about Archaeopteryx? Well, heres a quote from the father of evolutionary theory, Charles Darwin, who had published the Origin of Species only a few months before Archaopteryxs discovery: We know, on the authority of Professor Owen, that a bird certainly lived during the deposition of the upper greensand [i.e., the sediments dating from the late Jurassic period]; and still more recently, that strange bird, the Archeopteryx, with a long lizard-like tail, bearing a pair of feathers on each joint, and with its wings furnished with two free claws, has been discovered in the oolitic slates of Solnhofen. Hardly any recent discovery shows more forcibly than this how little we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world. Archaeopteryx in the 20th Century New specimens of Archaeopteryx have been discovered at regular intervals throughout the 20th century--but given our much-improved knowledge of Jurassic life, some of these dino-birds have been relegated, tentatively, to new genera and sub-species. Heres a list of the most important Archaeopteryx fossils of modern times: The Eichstatt specimen was discovered in 1951 and described almost a quarter-century later by the German paleontologist Peter Wellnhofer. Some experts speculate that this small individual actually belongs to a separate genus, Jurapteryx, or at least that it should be classified as a new Archaeopteryx species. The Solnhofen specimen, discovered in the early 1970s, was also examined by Wellnhofer after it had been misclassified as belonging to Compsognathus (a small, non-feathered dinosaur that has also been found in the Solnhofen fossil beds). Once again, some authorities believe that this specimen actually belongs to newly designated contemporary of Archaeopteryx, Wellnhoferia. The Thermopolis specimen, discovered in 2005, is the most complete Archaeopteryx fossil discovered to date and has been a key piece of evidence in the continuing debate about whether Archaeopteryx was truly the first bird, or closer to the dinosaur end of the evolutionary spectrum. No discussion of Archaeopteryx is complete without mentioning the Maxberg specimen, the mysterious fate of which sheds some light on the seamy intersection of commerce and fossil-hunting. This specimen was discovered in Germany in 1956, described in 1959, and owned privately after that by one Eduard Opitsch (who loaned it out to the Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen for a few years). After Opitsch died, in 1991, the Maxberg specimen was nowhere to be found; investigators believe that it was stolen from his estate and sold to a private collector, and it hasnt been seen since. Was There Really Only One Species of Archaeopteryx? As the above list demonstrates, the various specimens of Archaeopteryx discovered over the last 150 years have created a tangle of proposed genera and individual species that are still being sorted out by paleontologists. Today, most paleontologists prefer to group most (or all) of these Archaeopteryx specimens into the same species, Archaeopteryx lithographica, though some still insist on referring to the closely related genera Jurapteryx and Wellnhoferia. Given that Archaeopteryx has yielded some of the most exquisitely preserved fossils in the world, you can imagine how confusing it is to classify the less well-attested reptiles of the Mesozoic Era!